A case can be made that a negotiated settlement has been possible in Northern Ireland due to an inclusive political strategy and acceptance of compromise, whereas the Basque situation has not been conductive to a settlement due to the government pursuing an exclusionary position towards ETA and radical nationalist political groups.

The eastward expansion of the EU has shown the flexibility of what is European. The future integration of Turkey is the next step towards increasing recognition that the values that unite Europe are indeed universal, and that therefore, European identity cannot be culturally or territorially bounded.

In the age of intensified globalization and migration, societies are increasingly confronted with problems of integration and peaceful coexistence of religiously or otherwise ethnically diffe­rent groups, particularly of groups identifying themselves with Western traditions on the one hand and the world of Is­lam on the other. Tolerance is an important element to meet these requirements.

Modernity-inspired international development has often failed when not taking into account local context, culture and belief. Failing to consider religion risks the failure of enduring social change. This seems a more productive and appropriate way of framing societies and people’s lives, rather than suggesting secularity should supersede other forms of faith.

Indigenous identity is problematic because it is grounded on the politics of difference, especially on the existence of a prior identity. This essay argues that indigenous security implies the identification and security of the vulnerable shared identity from the dominant one, which then results in the creation of indigenous peoples as a threat.